Despite this, a recent review of music therapy in neurodevelopmental disorders found only 5 studies of music therapy application in ADHD. There is evidence that musical training (especially playing an instrument) can accelerate the development of timing skills and, consequently, the development of the auditory cortex in the long term. This impairment of timing skills is involved in the daily life of people with ADHD, for example when planning the consequences of present actions, impulsive decision-making, delay aversion, or inappropriate behaviors-such as inattention and motor agitation-in time constraints situations. People with ADHD have difficulty discriminating seconds and milliseconds in perceptual timing tasks, display worse performance in motor timing and temporal foresight, and have difficulty with timing-based rhythm. Temporal processes seem to normalize with methylphenidate, although there is no consensus. Temporal processing and auditory cortex morphology could be a biomarker of ADHD, attention-deficit disorder (ADD), and dyslexia, with common patterns in abnormal interhemispheric asynchrony, differentiating each subgroup with 89%-98% accuracy. Recent neuropsychological models suggest ADHD deficits are implicated in 3 independent pathways: the dorsal frontostriatal pathway involved in cognitive control, the ventral frontostriatal pathway involved in reward processing, and the frontocerebellar pathway related to temporal processing. Furthermore, dopamine, the critical neurotransmitter associated with ADHD, modulates reward circuits associated with music, providing pleasure responses similar to sex, food, or money. Music also facilitates changes in our mood and emotional intensity, arousal, and attention. Musicians’ brains have better sensorimotor connectivity, greater frequency coherence, and major volume in the basal ganglia, corpus callosum, and cerebellum. Listening to and practicing music activates both hemispheres in sensory, motor, cognitive, language, and emotional areas. Music therapy is mainly applied in two possible modalities: (1) “active” music therapy when the participant performs music using a musical instrument or voice and (2) “passive” music therapy when the participant listens to music performed by others. Methods based on music therapy, such as musical performance or listening to music, have reportedly reduced symptoms in Parkinson disease, brain damage, schizophrenia, substance use, posttraumatic stress disorder, and neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder and ADHD. Accordingly, ADHD persists in around 65% of cases in adulthood and is complicated by a high rate of comorbidity, accidents, and mortality, among others. ![]() Despite its efficacy, multimodal treatment of ADHD (eg, pharmacological, psychological, and psychoeducational modes) is insufficient to fully correct the disorder. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most frequent neurodevelopmental disorder with a worldwide prevalence of 5%.
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